Academic Degree and College Essay

Is college really worth it? A question many students start to ask as the college cost increases and jobs are tougher to get. When considering college you have to reflect more about what you want out of it rather than what you have to do to complete it. Although getting accepted into a good college is a great start, getting a college degree may appear intimidating in terms of the educational responsibility, tuition, fees, and time commitments involved. However, there are many other ways in which a college degree can be a useful investment; with enhancing the value of your life in several ways. In the future, the education received from college will be very helpful to people in several ways. College is becoming a major decision with adults in America today because people are questioning whether or not if college is actually worth it. People are not doing their research on how a college degree is more beneficial than if you did not earn one. Numerous studies have revealed that a college education can lead to long-term financial returns and increase a student’s success in the future. According to Deanna Mascle â€Å"Individuals with bachelor degrees earn about 60 percent more than those with just a high school diploma, who in turn earn about 40 percent more than high school dropouts†( 2012). Receiving a college degree and bringing what you learned to the real world will benefit you in your pursuit for financial success. If you do not have a mindset that you are going to put your full potential in college. Cooper, argues that there is no reason to waste your time and money. In our society now a college education is no longer a choice or privilege, but rather a necessity or requirement. We are basically raised and accustomed to believe that one needs a higher education in order to succeed in life. The major reason why people go to college is not because they want to, but because they essentially have to. In the article â€Å"College is still worth it†, Anthony Carnevale states, that businesses pay more money to workers with degrees than to those without because employers believe that postsecondary educated workers are more valuable (Carnevale 8). Even though society has began to change that it’s basically a necessity to have a college degree to get a good job its well worth the money in the end. There are a numerous amount of waiters/waitresses, bartenders, plumbers, and so on who have college degrees and are working in jobs that don’t require advanced degrees. A cashier, for example, earns $19,000 on average, but with a college degree, earns $29,000 on average. Similarly, plumbers without a degree earn $37,000 on average, but earn $52,000 with a college degree. Nearly all high school seniors are pressured by their guidance counselors and parents to go to college because it is â€Å"the right thing to do. † In Caroline Bird’s essay â€Å"College is a Waste of Time and Money†, she states that students go to college because â€Å"Their mothers wanted them to go. † (481) The undergraduate may have different dreams about what he or she desires to do in life, but because they believe that these â€Å"mentors† make out what is best for them, they almost certainly end up doing something that they do not want to do, resulting in being unhappy with their life. Bird makes some good points in her essay, but if children did not get pressured they would have no idea about college, and probably would not even think about going. Bird argues that college is a waste of money because youngsters do not know what they want. No one wants parents, teachers or counselors telling high school students to aim low and skip college. College is expensive we all have established that, but it doesn’t have to be. If you have to take out, or plan on taking out more than $50,000 to go to college, you should consider searching for other colleges that will be able to fit your budget. According to Cooper, he has finished college and has a great job. He goes on to talk about how if he never decided to go to college and pay the high tuition that goes along with it. The Public Policy Institute of California concurs and predicts that â€Å"41 percent of jobs in 2025 will require a college degree. † If these counselors and parents did not push these students into looking, and going to college, then the question is who would? Even when applying for a job that will not use your exact degree, just having that degree gives you an advantage over the other applicants who do not possess a degree. The majority of the employers of the company are looking for students with a college degree since employers are looking for students who have the skill to learn new things which is essential in order to work in the corporate world. The degree reassures the employers that a student with a degree can be engaged since completing a degree, that means that he/she can handle the work environment, and also has the skill to settle in to constant change. A degree is said to be more significant than the degree type as such, so as long has one has the ability to learn, then they will have a more prone  chance of getting employed. The majority of college students would feel that college is a waste of money because they do not learn what they want to. Instead they have to take classes that have nothing to do with what they are majoring in, and are only taking these classes to complete the educational requirement to start their actual major. With the increasing costs of college tuition, as well as essentials such as books a college education becomes a burden somewhat more than an investment. Tuition costs continue to rise, and for a lot of struggling Americans, getting an education now means years and years of monthly debt payments. Alexander Thomas Public, two-year college tuition has gone up 7. 3 percent since last year and will no doubt continue to rise (2012). Thomas says â€Å"there are definitely ways to reduce the cost of college, and educating yourself on the federal student loan process in general is extremely useful in the long run†(2012). Although college is expensive, if it is approached the right way, students can get the education they need and desire without getting buried in tons of debt. Americans just need to be smart and do their research when it comes to paying for college. The main reason for attending college is to get a well-paying career, while being happy with that career choice. College prepares you with educational understanding in order to accomplish something in the future. According to Dale Coye the â€Å"New American College†, higher education is necessary for you future. He states that â€Å"In spatial terms, teaching and learning may begin in a classroom, but course work also spills over into the life of the campus and the community. Students engage in experiential learning and co-curricular activities that take abstract ideas and anchor them in real-life problems† (Coye 20). Time and commitment are very important in succeeding with getting a college degree. According to Cooper, if you are planning to have children you should wait until you finish college, as it is a big commitment and time consuming even without children. Parenting students tend to complete four-year degrees at rates far slower than other college students. â€Å"More than half (59 percent) of parents attending college earn less than $10,000 a year† (Sorensen 30). Parents cannot afford to support their children without getting some sort of education. Copper, explains that he probably would not have finished school if he decided to have kids before he graduated. The opposition to get a decent job is increasing; it is near to impossible to achieve a high paying job without at least a bachelor’s degree. Numerous amounts of jobs that only used to want their employees to have a high school diploma now need some type of college education. College is worth the money, nevertheless, is because it is one of the rare associations that frequently holds people of different cultural and racial backgrounds. This allows one to advance their social and communicative skills because they are exposed to unaccustomed cultures. College helps you to become a responsible adult because for the first time most people are nearly on their own. College helps students get ready for major linked skills. Thus, college helps in achieving skills linked to the business one looks to get into. It helps a student in figuring out how to do their job. It is entirely different from high school; you have to manage your private time and financial state as well. Proceeding with college teaches individuals how to handle their lives. Most college students are managing their college life between studying for their exams and earning money through low paying jobs to maintain their college tuition. In addition to this, they are enjoying the benefits of a good social life, parties and lots of friends. The experience one has in college really helps teenagers turn into adults. Going away to college you have to face situations like having to pay bills, time has to be managed well, and cutoff dates have to be met, just like the â€Å"real world. † College is just not about obtaining a good job, but about gaining knowledge. Sometimes it is good to be an intelligent person instead of being someone who just makes a lot of money. There are quite a few reasons why college is worth it in the end, the tuition and college costs are expensive in the beginning, but it pays off once you are earning the money in the future. Researching colleges and finding out the best option for you will only benefit yourself in the end, making wise choices and deciding if starting a family with your finances without a college education will be worth it in the long run, and doing research for yourself to see what will better benefit you and your family by getting some sort of college education. An education gives people an understanding of what they can do for themselves and how they can make needed changes in their lives. Simply just giving away money would not teach the skills or values that come with receiving an education. This is the value of education: that it makes lasting changes in the lives of those who seek it. Works Cited Bird, Caroline. â€Å"College is a waste of time and money. † The Case Against College (1975): n. pag. Print. Carnevale, Anthony. â€Å"College is Still Worth it. † Inside Higher ED 14 Jan. 2011: 8-10. Print. Cooper, Edward, Veterinarian. Personal Interview. 27 Oct, 2012. Coye, Dale. â€Å"Ernest Boyer and the New American College. † Connecting with the Disconnects 29. 3 (1997): 20. Print. Mascle, Deanna. â€Å"A College Degree in nearly a necessity. † Thinking about college? We can help! : n. pag. College Tidbits. Web. 29 Nov. 2012. . Sorensen, Kia. â€Å"Unmarried Parents in College. † Fragile Families 20. 2 (2010): 28-50. Print. Tutiion Breakdown: Is college worth it? HLNtv. com Turner Broadcasting System Inc, 16 Aug. 2012. Web. 19 Nov. 2012.

Code Switching

Urdu-English Code-Switching: The Use of Urdu Phrases and Clauses In Pakistani English (A Non-native Variety) Abstract This paper presents an analysis of Urdu-English code-switching in Pakistani English. However, data has been analysed only at the phrase and clause level. Based on the empirical data from Pakistani English newspapers and magazines, this paper aims to show that code-switching is not a grammarless phenomenon rather it is ruled governed activity at the phrase and clause level. It also presents the brief overview of the use of English as a non-native variety.This paper suggests that variations and changes in a language are an integral part of bilingualism and multilingualism. All the present data shows that the occurrences of various Urdu phrases and clauses impose no ungrammatical effect on the construction of English syntax. Key words: Bilingualism, code-switching, non-native varieties of English Introduction This paper centres on the variations in the English language d ue to Urdu-English code-switching in Pakistan and also shows the significant role of the Urdu language in the formation of Pakistani English.Only those syntactic features that are found as a result of code-switching have been discussed. Mahboob (2003) described different phonological and grammatical aspects of Pakistani English, which are quite different from Standard British English. But in this paper, only that data has been taken into account where Urdu phrases and clauses have been used. This paper is interested in describing different aspects of language change in English when used in a non-native context i. e. Pakistan.First and foremost, ‘a great deal of interest has been generated in the English language as a result of its spread around the world and its use as an international language (Cheshire 1991:7). Now-a-days English has become a global language. According to Bamgbose, (2001:357) English is recognised as the dominating language in the world as globalisation come s to be universally accepted in political and academic discourse. The development of ‘globalisation’ has been associated with the dominance of the English language (Bottery 2000:6).English is used all over the world by millions of native and non-native speakers because of its dominant position. According to Crystal (2003:65), there are approximately 430 million L2 users and 330 million L1 users. So the non-native speakers use English more than the natives ones. However, these figures exclude learners of English, and Crystal suggests there may be as many as one billion of them. Being an international language, it is used almost in all the countries of the world. When people started using English in non-native contexts because of its growing popularity, it developed as a transplanted language.According to Kachru (1986:30): ‘A language may be considered transplanted if it is used by a significant numbers of speakers in social, cultural and geographical contexts diffe rent from the contexts in which it was originally used†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. a transplanted language is cut off from its traditional roots and begins to function in new surroundings, in new roles and new contexts’. Non-native Varieties of English Kachru (1978) was among the first to identify and delineate boundaries of a nativized variety of English in South Asia, which he terms as South Asian English (SAE).Kachru (1996) regarded SAE as an additional linguistic arm in the culture of identity. He believes that ‘nativization must be seen as the result of those productive linguistic innovations which are determined by the localized function of a second language variety, the culture of conversation and commutative strategies in new situations and transfer from local languages’ (Kachru 1986: 21-2). With this development, there was a gradual recognition and acknowledgement of the new and non-native varieties of English, e. g. Nigerian English, Indian English, Chicano English, Pakistani English, Singaporean English, Sri Lankan English etc.The term ‘New varieties’ of English’ implies that there are more or less recognizable varieties of spoken and/or written by groups of people’. (Platt et al. 1984:2) A new variety does not develop in isolation but it depends on the communicative needs of those who speak and write it. Such a variety is considered an interference variety because there is a clear linguistic and cultural interference from the first language and culture of the users. When a language is used in a different cultural context and social situation, several changes take place in its phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax.A language so widely used has its own grammatical and linguistic system through which it conveys its distinction of meanings. These linguistic characteristics are usually transparent in its sound system, vocabulary and sentence construction. The non-native speakers develop a whole new range of expression to fulfil the communicative needs. Since the user of the non-native variety is bilingual, creativity is manifested in different kinds of mixing, switching, alteration and transcreation of codes. When two languages come in contact, it results in â€Å"inventiveness†. Bilingualism in itself is a source of creativity in language (Talaat 2003).Such varieties are so widespread and have such a long standing ‘that they may be thought stable and adequate enough to be regarded as varieties of English in their own right rather than stages on the way to a more native-like English’ (Quirk 1983:8) Urdu-English code-switching and Pakistani English English enjoys a very prestigious status in Pakistan. Its prevalence and power in Pakistan is growing very much. For many Pakistanis, English has become not only a â€Å"practical necessity†, but also â€Å"the language of opportunity, social prestige, power, success as well as social superiority†.Kachru (199 7:227) pointed at the ‘ideological, cultural and elitist power of English’. Such power is vividly seen in Pakistan where people tend to switch from Urdu to English to create special effect. Urdu is the national language of Pakistan and one of the two official languages of Pakistan (the other official language being English). It is the most important language of literacy in the country. In the hierarchy of linguistic prestige, Urdu is placed lower only than English. In Pakistan, Urdu-English code-switching is a common characteristic of educated Pakistani bilinguals. Code-switching ccurs when two languages come in contact: ‘the alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence or constituent’ (Poplack 1980:581). This sociolinguistic phenomenon makes a great contribution in the creation of new and non-native varieties of English. When two languages come into contact, not only the phonological features but lexical items and syntactic patterns als o manage to filter across from one language to another. English is used in Pakistan in a non-native context. Different changes can be observed in its phonology, vocabulary, and grammar and now it is recognized as a distinct variety of English i. . Pakistani English. Non-native varieties of English are an important aspect of language change and these varieties have emerged because of code-switching and code-mixing. According to Trudgill (1986: 1), ‘the languages that are in contact with each other socially may become changed linguistically, as a result of being in contact psychologically, in the competence of individual speaker’. Pakistani English has assumed a linguistic and cultural identity of its own. This identity manifests itself throughout the language at the word level, the phrase level and the sentence level.It is the natural consequence of its regular contact with the Urdu language. A large number of borrowings from Urdu and the regional languages of Pakistan h ave entered in Pakistani English (Baumgardner 1993). Certain lexical items may show a shift from their original Standard British English usage to Urduized meaning (Talaat 1993). In comparison with the borrowing in syntax and morphology, lexical items have the highest ease of borrowing and seem most likely to occur (Brutt-Griffler, 2002; Romaine, 1995).Such a vocabulary items in all the new varieties of English are largely drawn from the areas that are significantly different to the geo-social-cultural context of British English (Fernado 2003). As, no reliable study on Urdu-English code-switching at the level of the phrase and clause is available, this paper is likely to bridge the gap. The code-switching data in this paper focuses on the use of Urdu phrases and clauses in the English language and shows that its occurrence imposes no ungrammatical effect on the structure of English syntax.The data has been collected from the following printed Pakistani English newspaper and magazines : 1. Dawn (daily) (Lahore) 2. Herald (monthly) (Karachi) 3. Mag (weekly) (Karachi) In this paper, code-switching is divided into two categories. They are inter-sentential switching, that is switching from one language to another at a sentence boundary, and intra-sentential code-switching, or code-mixing when the switch takes place within one sentence. In the following section, we will analyse the intra-sentential code-switching in Pakistani English at the level of phrase.Phrasal insertions A phrase is a group of words, which does not carry a complete sense. Formally a phrase is defined as a syntactic structure that has syntactic properties derived from its head (Mahajan 2001). Basic phrase structure is a universal feature of all human languages. The Urdu language is not different from English as far as the structure of phrase is concerned. There are a fair number of Urdu multi-word switches in this section that are either two word or three word phrases occurring in the English claus e or sentence.The purpose is to introduce the position of various Urdu phrases inserted in English syntax. Some researchers suggest that switches that are larger than one word are â€Å"true code-switches† but one-word switches are borrowings. However, it is not within the goals of this paper to distinguish code-switches from borrowings. In this section, we will analyze the occurrence of various NPs, Adj Ps and PPs in the English sentences. Since phrase insertion is always a complex kind of switching, it demands a high degree of proficiency and accuracy from the bilinguals involved in code-switching.Noun phrase A noun phrase is a word or group of words, which acts as the subject, complement or object of a clause, or as the object of a preposition. A noun phrase always has an obligatory head noun and optional modifier and qualifier. (m) H (q) For example in the Urdu phrase ‘ mera bhai apaney dostoon key saath’, (my brother with his friends) mera is the modifier of the head noun ‘bhai’ while Urdu postpositional phrase ‘dostoon key saath’ is qualifying the head noun. The structure of Urdu noun phrases used in Pakistani English is very diverse.Here are some examples of the use of the Urdu noun phrases occurring as the subject of the English verbs: 1. A poor hari (the farmer) can be sent to the gallows even on the mild accusation of a crime leveled against him by a noble. (March 27, 2007 D) 2. An honorable sardar or wadera (the landlord or chief) can walk free even after proven record of the most heinous kinds of against crimes him. (March 27, 2007 D) 3. They alleged that the naib nazim (the vice municipal officer) was receiving threats to force him to part ways with the PPP-backed Awam Dost panel. (March 04, 2007 D)In the first two examples, the English adjectives are modifying the English nouns in a noun phrase while in the third example both the adjective and noun are from the Urdu language. All the noun phrases have the English determiners ‘a’, ‘an’ and ‘the’ respectively in the beginning of the sentences. Urdu noun phrase as an apposition of another noun It is very interesting to note the use of an Urdu noun phrase as apposition in Pakistani English. ‘Apposition’ means the placing of a noun group after a noun or pronoun in order to identify something or someone or give more information about them.In the following example, we can see the use of an Urdu noun phrase as an apposition of another noun. Here the Urdu noun phrase is giving information about the proper noun ‘Haji Ramzan’. 1. Five militants who tried to kidnap tehsil municipal officer Hameedullah on October 8 were forced to give up their hostage after Haji Ramzan, the tehsil naib nazim (the city vice municipal officer), and his men confronted them on the main Tank-Jandola road. (November 2006 H) Urdu phrase introduced by an English adverb: In the examples below, the Engli sh relative adverb â€Å"as† introduces the Urdu stretches of words embedded in English.This type of switching is very rare and demands high proficiency. 1. Amjad considered her as ustad se ziyada dost (friend rather than teacher). (January 22, 2006 D) 2. And an old friend of hers, a female writer, was so infuriated on being referred to as a ‘Cycle wali larki’ (female cyclist) that she broke relations with her for good. (March 25, 2007 D) 3. According to one of them, they were not shunned by the public as lula, langra and apahaj (lame and paralyzed). (December 04, 2005 D) 4. What was sworn upon yesterday as guiding principle will be chucked at the altar of expediency tomorrow as mere siyasi bayan (political statement). January 22, 2006 D) Genitive phrases In Urdu, genitives are indicated with ka/ke/ke as a morph-word. The choice of these words depends on gender, number and case ending of the head noun. However, the English word ‘of’ is equivalent to all these. The genitive or possessive form of Urdu noun takes different positions in English syntax and imposes no ungrammatical effect in the construction. In the following examples, the Urdu noun phrases are used as the complement of an English verb of incomplete predication and occurring at the end of the sentence.The Urdu noun phrase begins with the English determiner ‘an’ in the first example. 1. Atif Amin feels â€Å"it's true that to some extend visiting therapists is an ameeron ka nakhra. (arrogance of the rich) (July 31, 2005 D) 2. The colloquial phrase used for this punishment was kala ki saza. (severe punishment) (July 24, 2005 D) In some cases the Urdu noun phrase is used as the subject of the English syntax. In example 2 the Urdu noun phrase begins with English determiner ‘the’. 1. 1. â€Å"Logon ki samajh† (understanding of the people) is all he has to say about the society's attitude towards dance. January 12, 2006 D) 2. The Islamabad ka muqadas darakht (Holy tree of Islamabad) revolved around a popular Banyan tree that stood in sector E-7 but was a few months back burned down. (May 21, 2006 D) 3. Promptly can the reply from Fateh Muhammad Mailk, who argued that kufar ka fatwa (Infidelity claim) is nothing new with us. (May 21, 2006 D) Sometimes, the Urdu noun phrases are also inserted in the middle of the English syntax. In the following examples, we can see the use of the Urdu noun phrases as the complement of an English verb. 1.Publications have just become catalogues and designers have become shadi ka jora mills (Wedding cloth house), not aiming to produce ethereal pieces any more. (September 25, 2005 D) 2. Rohit also revived the age-old warak ka kaam (work of silver gold leaf) once used for mughal royalty. (January 22, 2005 D) 3. Naturally they bathed themselves properly after every hug as the grandma had a smell of sarson ka tel (mustard’oil) and desi soap all over here. (July 31, 2005 D) 4. I am th rilled to see a lovely jurao ka set (precious Ornament) that President Ayub Khan presented her when she visited Pakistan in the 1960s. March 25, 2007) In the example 3 the double genitive has been used with English mixed in a noun phrase. Adjective Phrase A word or a group of words that does the work of an adjective is called an adjective phrase. Adjective phrases are usually formed from an intensifier that is optional, followed by the head (H) that is often an adjective In Pakistani English, Urdu adjective phrases may occur as a predicate adjective or inside the noun phrase. In the examples below, an Urdu adjective phrase has been inserted in the English sentence. 1. He is called sher ka bacha (bashful, brave) and mard ka bacha (high minded). January 08, 06 D) In the above example, Urdu evaluative metaphors that reflect Pakistani social customs, localized attitude and behavior have been used in English syntax. In a typical Pakistani context, a person having great courage and with a keen sense of honor is termed as ‘sher ka bacha’ (lion’s child). In the following example the English intensifier ‘very’ has been used with an Urdu adjective. This kind of code-switching is very rare. 2. Their response, ‘ I think you are right madam,’ said a young man, city life and modern education makes men very beghairat (dishonorable) (November 2006 H)In the examples given below, the Urdu adjective phrases are modifying the English nouns in the noun phrases. 3. It was a taiz raftar (very speedy) bus and I merely sat on it as well. (February 26, 2005 D) 4. The 60-minutes interview was largely spent in advocate Bukhari name dropping, saying he grew up with the lordships of the Superior Court and what payare insaan (lovely men) they are. (March 18, 2007 D) Example 4 reflects a very complex kind of code-switching. The Urdu stretch of words has been introduced by the English word ‘what’, but actually it is giving the emphasi s on the Urdu adjective ‘payare’.The use of ‘what’ has changed the syntactic structure and it seems that it has been used to focus on ‘payare insaan’. The introduction of ‘what’ has changed the word order of the sentence. One important thing worthwhile to mention here is that it seems harder to break up a relative clause/phrase than other types of subordination. It is quite problematic to have a relative pronoun from one language and the rest of the clause in the other. The code-switching data reported from other language pairs also show that switching between the relative pronoun and the clause that it introduces is rare. Nortier 1990) Mostly, the English adjectives are necessarily uninflected. They undergo no morphological changes with the variations in the nouns they qualify. However, in Pakistani English, Urdu adjectives, sometimes, may be inflected according to the rules of Urdu grammar because of number and gender as in the a bove example. For example: Payara (lovely) is an inflected adjective e. g. Payara larka (lovely boy), Payari larki (lovely girl), Payare insaan (lovely people). Prepositional phrase Urdu has a postposition instead of English preposition, which differs in the way that it precedes objects.A collective term used for both preposition and postposition is adposition. In typical Urdu adposition phrases, adposition comes at the end. An Urdu postposition phrase is syntactically inserted in English syntax in the following example: 1. Both of them unhurt â€Å"Khuda key fazal sey† (By the grace of God) while Shazia became paraplegic. (January 08, 2006 D) It is very interesting to note that the Urdu postposition phrase occurs at the same position where its English equivalent could have been. Verbal phrase A verb phrase is a word or a group of words that does not have a subject and a predicate of its own and does the work of a verb.In Urdu language, auxiliaries occur after the main verb i n contrast with English where auxiliaries occur before the main verb. Urdu verb phrases occur very rarely in Pakistani English because they have to undergo a complex morphological change as compared to noun phrases. However, sometimes an Urdu verbal phrase is also inserted in English syntax. Here is an example of the use of an Urdu verb phrase: 1. My colleagues kept worrying that piracy ho rahi hay (is going on) we should stop it; I kept saying, â€Å"hooney do†. (let it be) (September 11, 2005 D) ho rahi hai ain verb Progressive form auxiliary The above-mentioned data and examples suggest that Urdu phrases are frequently used in Pakistani English and its occurrences at various positions in a sentence seem to be quite appropriate. Urdu phrases obey the rules of English grammar everywhere in the sentences. After analyzing intra-sentential code-switching at the level of phrase, now we want to turn to inter-sentential code-switching in Pakistani English. The next section begins with ‘inter-clausal code switching’. Inter-clausal code-switching:As mentioned earlier, code-switching occurring at the sentence level is called inter-sentential code-switching. The term â€Å"inter-clausal code-switching† is used to refer to switches occurring at the clause boundaries. In the present data, switched Urdu clauses can include a coordinated clause, a subordinate clause or a clause/phrase introduced by an English adverb. Urdu clauses that are coordinated with an English clause through the use of coordinating conjunction are classified as coordinated clauses. Urdu subordinate clauses are also used with main English clause.We can find the English subordinate clause with Urdu main clause as well. Mostly, an English subordinate clause gives a warning or advice about the consequences of an action or attitude. It is relatively common in Pakistani English that Urdu proverbs and maxims occur at the periphery of an English clause. There are also switched Urdu full clauses that are syntactically independent of the preceding English clause, although there is still thematic coherence in terms of their reference and actions. The data exemplified in the following sections will reveal how different types of Urdu clauses are used in Pakistani English.Co-ordinated Clauses: In Pakistani English, co-ordinated clauses are joined by English as well as Urdu conjunctions. However Urdu conjunctions do not occur quite frequently. A conjunction that often conjoins the English clauses to the Urdu adjacent clauses is â€Å"and†. Here is an example of the use of the English coordinating conjunction: 1. Why don’t we all go together to New Delhi? N1 ki shaddi ki shopping bhi ho jaye gi (There will be shopping of N1’s wedding) and we can have much fun. (June 20, 2005 D) As can be seen in the above example, there is switching here back and forth between English and Urdu.An Urdu clause is embedded in English and English is taken up again. I n the following example, an Urdu conjunction â€Å"leykin† (but) is inserted in the English sentence. The reason for the use of Urdu conjunction in Pakistani English is directionality of code-switching, because most of the times, switched Urdu clauses follow the English main clause. This Urdu conjunction has a pragmatic effect as a discourse marker in drawing attention to the utterance. 1. We reached there in time, lakin no body was there to receive us. (Spoken English) In Nortier’s Moroccan Arabic/Dutch code-switching data (1990), the Arabic onjunction â€Å"walikan† (but) is also most frequent and is the one that conjoins two clauses that are both in another language. Taking a discourse marker from another language has a pragmatic effect on the whole utterance. Another interesting feature of Pakistani English that has been found as a result of Urdu-English code-switching is the use of an independent Urdu clause or sentence with English in written as well as sp oken English. Here are three examples where Urdu clauses are syntactically independent; however, they share a semantic relationship with each other: 1.Very soon, I will be a big star in Bollywood, main naumeed nahin hougni. (I will not be disappointed) (July 16, 2006 D) 2. He is set to release some very interesting films, which he describes as happy-go-lucky movies, aaj kal happy fims ka zamana hai. (Now-a-days people like happy movies) (December 11, 2005 D) 3. I cannot make new friends. Main buri, mairai dausti burai. (I am bad, friendship with me is bad) That’s all (March 25, 2007 D) Subordinated clauses: Urdu subordinated clauses are also used in Pakistani English, which is a very important aspect of inter-sentential code-switching.The subordinating conjunction is not always in the language of the clause that it introduces. Both Urdu and English subordinating conjunctions are used to join main and subordinated clauses. We can classify this section to two main broad categor ies: 1. Urdu subordinate clauses with an English main clause 2. English subordinate clauses with a Urdu main clause Firstly, we will look at the occurrence of the Urdu subordinate clauses with an English main clause. Urdu subordinate clauses with an English main clause: Different Urdu subordinate clauses are embedded in the English sentences in Pakistani English.The following two kinds of Urdu subordinate clauses have been found in Pakistani English: 1. The noun clause 2. The adverb clause Noun clause: The data exemplified in this section will show that a noun clause is a subordinate clause that does the work of a noun in a complex sentence. It can be used in Pakistani English as: 1. The subject of a verb 2. The complement of a verb 3. The object of a preposition In the following example, the switched Urdu noun clause has been used as the subject of an English verb: 1. Sub kutch chalet hai is their dictum. (June 12, 2005 D) ‘All is right’ is their dictum.Most of the tim es, a switched noun clause acts as a complement of an English verb. Here are some examples: 1. To underline the point he added is main science ki koi baat nahin hai. (December 25, 2005 D) To underline the point he added there is nothing scientific in this. 2. He got all mixed up and asked acha aap begum commondo hai. (October 30, 2005 D) He got all mixed up and asked well. You are Mrs. Commando. 3. I get looks from them all and a couple said aap aagay aa jain. (October 09, 2006 D) I get looks from them all and a couple said you come in front please. 4. She couldn’t resist the bohat aachi movie hai. May 29, 2005 D) She couldn’t resist it’s the very best movie. In the examples below, the switched Urdu clause has been used as an object of an English preposition. 1. No one at the CCB was willing to say anything except that is ka order ooper se aya hai. (May 07, 2006 D) 2. No one at the CCB was willing to say anything except that we have orders from our seniors. 3. A s they turned to me, I shrugged my shoulder with a ‘Bhai dekh lo, I am not carrying you purse’ (November 2006 H) 4. As they turned to me, I shrugged my shoulder with a brother you can see; I am not carrying you purse.Sometimes, it’s very interesting to note the use of an Urdu noun clause as a complement of a verb of incomplete predication. 1. The whole thing is that key bhaiya sab se bada rupaiya. (February 12, 2006 D) The whole thing is that bother, money is all. Adverb clause: As we have seen through the above examples that the noun clause acts as a noun in complex sentences, in the same way the function of an adverb clause is that of an adverb in complex sentences. In the following example, an Urdu adverb conditional clause has been embedded in the English sentence.However, the Urdu subordinate clause precedes the English main clause. The subordinating conjunction is in Urdu, whereas the clause that follows it is in English: 1. Aap ko kissi cheez sey strings k etney hoon, to its best to run from it. (June 26, 2005 D) If you want to cut the cord off, then its best to run from it. English subordinate clauses with Urdu main clause: In some cases, English clause is subordinate to an Urdu main clause. In the following example the English noun clause is joined with the Urdu main clause through the English subordinating conjunction â€Å"that†. 1.Mujhe shikayat hai that we are not making history. (July 31, 2005 D) I have a complaint that we are not making history. In the example below, the English conditional clause is subordinate to the Urdu main clause. In this example, the English subordinate clause precedes the Urdu main clause: 1. The police asked both of us to settle things between ourselves. Because if it becomes court case, then mamla lamba ho jaiga. (February 19, 2006 D) The police asked both of us to settle things between ourselves. Because if it becomes a court case, then it will be a lengthy process. Repetitions and other swit chesSometimes, Urdu phrases or clauses are used just as the repetition of an English phrase or clause. The purpose of this type of switching is to give emphasis. However, in spoken it is used to address different audiences. 1. Take care, apna bahut khayal rakhiya ga. (December 18, 2005 D) 2. They shouted for his execution. Zen ko phansy do. (October 02, 2005 D) 3. Feroz was very drunk. Usko chad gayi thi. (May 07, 2006 D) 4. He thought that Geeta Bali was the daughter of a certain Dr. Bali,a dentist in Aligarh, who was shocked when one day, Sikandar asked him: Aap ki sahabzadi kaisi hain? (How’s your daughter? (November 2006 H) In some cases, Urdu clauses are used to quote maxim and proverb or some other person in Pakistani English. Here are some examples: 1. My unbending procrastination is one thing that repels the beauty of the world but they say ‘sabar ka phal meetha’ (patience has its reward) (January 22, 2006 D) 2. Talk about ‘lakkar hazam, pathar haza m’ (very powerful and digestive stomach), they deserve a batter deal, if only for their patience in eating such swill day after day. (October 2006 M) 3. He gave the example of the phrase â€Å"auratein bhot bolteen hain† (females are very talkative). August 07, 2005 D) 4. She was very touched and impressed, especially when the waiter uttered these words ‘baaji, mehman sey paisay nahin letay (sister, we don’t charges from guests)’. (July 17, 2005 D) 5. She opened the Q and A session by saying ‘aab court aap ki ball main hai’ (Now all depends on you). (May 29,2005 D) Conclusion The data and examples presented in this paper demonstrate that code-switching affects Pakistani English at the phrase and clause level and Pakistani English has its unique features. This paper has shown the variations in English syntax when it is used in a non-native context i. . Pakistan. This paper shows that in code-switching many traces of native language can b e observed on the foreign language. The grammatical usage of Urdu language on English is visible here in the above mentioned examples. Some linguists are of the opinion that there is no language that has not been under influence of another language. English is no exception in this regard. Several changes are taking place in the English language. Isolated languages are rarely met in the global village. Bilingualism or multilingualism is a characteristic feature of modern society.According to Wardhaugh (1998: 100) ‘Command of only a single variety of language, whether it be a dialect, style or register, would appear to be an extremely rare phenomenon, one likely to occasion comment. Most speakers command several varieties of the language they speak, and bilingualism, even multilingualism, is the norm for many people throughout the world rather than unilingualism’. Note: I would like to thank Professor Dr. Mubina Talaat for her valuable comments on my paper. ReferencesBamg bose, Ayo (2001) World Englishes and Globalisation. World Englishes, 20(3), 357-63 Baumgardner, R. J. , Kennedy, A. E. H. , and Shamim, F. (1993) The Urduization of English in Pakistan. In Baumgardner, R (Ed. ) The Englis Language in Pakistan, The Oxford Press, Karachi. Bottery, Mike (2000) Education, Policy and Ethics. London: Continuum. Brutt-Griffler, Janina (2002) World Englishes: A Study of Its Development. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Cheshire, Jenny (1991) English around the World: Linguistic Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Crystal, David (2003) English as a Global Language. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fernado, S (2003) The Vocabulary of Sri Lankan English. Paper presented at 9th International Conference on Sri Lankan Studies. Sri Lanka Kachru, Braj B. (1978) Lexical innovations in South Asian English. In Indian writing in English. Edited by Ramesh Mohan. Delhi: Orient Longman Ltd. ,pp. 80-100 Kachru, Braj B. (1986) The Alchem y of English: the Spread, Functions, and Models Of Non-native English. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Kachru, Braj B. 1996) Series Editor’s Preface. In Robert J. Baumgardner (ed. ) 1996. South Asian English: Structure, Use and Users. Delhi: Oxford University Press. Kachru, Braj. B. (1997) Resources for Research and Teaching. In World Englishes 2000. Edited by Larry E. Smith and Michael L. Forman. Honolulu: College of Languages. Linguistics, and Literature, University of Hawaii and the East- West Centre , pp. 209-51 Mahajan, A (2001) Complex Predicates and Case in Hindi, in M. Saito et al. (eds. ) Preceedings of Nanzan GLOW, 275-296. Nagoya, Japan: Nanzan University.Mahboob, A (2003) The English Language in Pakistan: A Brief Overview of its History and Linguistics. Pakistan journal of language, vol. 4, no. 1 Nortier, J. (1990) Dutch-Moroccan Arabic code-switching among Moroccans in the Netherlands. Dordrecht: Foris. Platt, J. , Weber, H and Lain H. M. (1984). The New Englishes, Londo n: Routledge and Kegan Paul Poplack, S. (1980) ‘Sometimes I start a sentence in Spanish y termino espanol : toward a typology of code-switching in Amastea, J. and Elias- Olivares, L. 1982. Spanish in the United States Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Quirk, R and Greenbaum, S (1983) A University Grammar of English, Harlow: Longman Romaine, Susan (1995) Bilingualism (second edition). Oxford: Blackwell. Talaat, Mubina (1993) Lexical Variation in Pakistani English. In Baumgardner, R (Ed. ) The English Language in Pakistan, The Oxford Press, Karachi. Talaat, Mubina (2003) Some Aspects of Creativity in Pakistani English or Improvised Communication, Pakistan journal of language, vol. 4, no. 1 Trudgill, P (1986). Dialects in contact. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Wardhaugh, Ronald (1998) An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (third edition). Oxford: Blackwell.

The Effective Use and Importance of Hypothesis in Management Assignment

The Effective Use and Importance of Hypothesis in Management - Assignment Example The hypothesis such as presented by Bryant (1998) about the claim that CEOs who play a good game of golf also run high-performing companies is subject for various tests and more researchers for it to be proven correct. Thus, hypotheses are to be tested just prior to proving them in the case of some claims underlying various researchers. There are many ways on how to test a hypothesis. Statistically, a hypothesis can be viewed as the subject for testing the validity or truth of the statement. If the researcher failed to prove the hypothesis, then he or she has also failed to provide sufficient evidence to prove the validity of a null hypothesis (Reeves & Brewer, 1979). Statistics is one of the best tools used to analyze and obtain information from a given data or set of information. Statistics consists of numbers and these are used to define and form concrete information. In the article of Bryant (1998), the importance of statistics was justified when specific average handicap index of golfers was calculated to obtain and deduce specific information from it. The given information when combined can be used effectively especially in inferential statistics. Inferential statistics uses numbers and data or data set to obtain conclusive information. However, it cannot be denied that the information that will be obtained is dependent on the raw data. There are many ways to draw inferences from the raw data but many of them are heading to wrong direction (Knowledge @ Wharton, 2008). In the article of Bryant (1998), the inference is dependent on the given numbers explaining average handicap index of golfers. There can be many things related to these figures but the bottom line is that all of them explained how to classify information to finally come up with a general conclusion.  Ã‚  

The history of tequila in mexico Research Paper

The history of tequila in mexico - Research Paper Example Known as the tree of miracles, the Agave plant is the only source of Tequila drink (Earth Bar Magazine 1) where it takes about nine years for an agave plant to be ready for harvesting, processing, and distilling to make the Tequila drink. The history of Tequila in Mexico confirms that the drink is a symbol of cultural heritage with a cultural significance that supersedes the status of alcoholic beverage (James 1). The process that produces Tequila represents a cultural blend as it defines the indigenous Prehispanic culture of Jalisco, Mexico and the emergence of the Spanish distillation process (Festa 1). This marked a Spanish and Mexican cultural blend (James 1). This cultural blend has passed to the current generation where the production and consumption of Tequila in Mexico portrays a cultural blend. The ancient tribe of Mexico, the Aztecs, the Chichimecans, the Otomies, the Toltecan’s, and the Nahuatls who drank beverages made from the Agave plant initiated the history of the Tequila in Mexico (Earth Bar Magazine 1). Indeed, the Aztecs were the first people to ferment sap from the local agave plants that made Tequila in the pre-Hispanic times (La Cava del Tequila 1). On the other hand, the Nahuatl’s worshipped the Agave plant that made Tequila (Earth Bar Magazine 1). The blue agave plant that produces sugar that later forms Tequila is native to northwestern state of Jalisco (Earth Bar Magazine 1). The arrival of the Spaniards in Tequila, which is in a region of Techinchan in the old Aztec Empire and Jalisco state of Mexico, led to the introduction of the European influence on Tequila (Earth Bar Magazine 1). In the 1000 B.C the Mayan and Aztec leaders produced and consumed pulque, which was North Americas first known alcoholic beverage (La Cava del Tequila 1). The Mayan and Aztec leaders made the pulque drink from the fermented maguey plant’s sap (La Cava del Tequila 1). The

International trading blocks Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

International trading blocks - Essay Example TRIAD refers to three regional free-trade blocs which include NAFTA (USA, Mexico and Canada), EU (27 nations primarily located in Europe) and ASEAN (10 Asian countries). These are also grouped around some common currencies (the euro, the yen and the dollar) According to Fan Zhai (2006) by 2005 in Asia, there were 18 bilateral trade agreements and at least 30 new preferential trade agreements. The graph below is a glimpse of different regional trade agreements in Asia. Recent trends Trade diplomacy is now a part of the relationship that a country shares with another. After the establishment of WTO, 20 PTAs are formed on average on yearly basis. However one can notice the decline in regional cooperation, as cross-regional agreements are increasing in number. According to Heydon Ken (2010) over half of the world’s trade is through preferential trade agreements. Countries that get involved in these trade agreements have preference for speed and responsiveness. Bilateral agreements are preferred over multilateral agreements due to ease of enforcement and require less negotiation. Zhai (2006) reports that the new PTAs in Asia agree on more that tariff and non-tariff policies, rather they include provisions on nvestment liberalization, services, assistance in trade and technical and economic collaboration. The graph below shows the drastic rate at which the number of PTAs are increasing. Benefits of PTAs The foremost reason for creating a PTA is to gain concessions in trade with member countries. Being in a PTA implies that the member countries will get preference over other non-member countries. This removal of barriers of trade has a number of inherent benefits. These can be in several forms, such as: Economies of scale In countries that are located nearby each other, having preference can also benefit through lower transportation costs. Japan-Singapore Economic Partnership Agreement (JESPA) is an agreement in which both the nations have promised coordination in technology, regulatory, e-commerce, media and broadcasting, and human resources. This will benefit the multinational companies in both the countries because they can take benefit of economies of scale at regional level. Tax benefits Countries in PTA agree to trade with member countries at low tariffs, but do not abolish them; this reduces the cost of trade. The loss of tax revenue from import duties can be made up by more trade and more taxes from increased activity in the country. More trade Integration of international markets through reduction in tariffs and other barriers have led to reduction in the cost of trade. Thus countries can now concentrate on their production facilities only and produce those goods in larger quantities in which they have absolute or comparative advantage. More trade is expected to raise the standard of living of people in countries. Hub and Spoke structure The hub and spoke structure works in a way that several smaller vehicles (spoke), remain indi vidually managed but pool their assets to contribute to a central investment vehicle (hub). So the well established businesses become the hub and can give a few countries preferential treatment to a few

Fashion, popular pleasures and media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Fashion, popular pleasures and media - Essay Example The essay "Fashion, popular pleasures and media" talks about media, fashion and popular pleasures. The anguish in choosing the reading material for the aware and modern women helps define the difficult relationship between feminism and fashion. Even though she has an aversion towards the way women are portrayed in media but she herself is an active participant in the utilization and enjoys clothes and shopping. A six-year-old Sally and an eight-year-old Billy are sitting in front of the television enjoying their favorite programs. Suddenly an advertisement disrupts their favorite television show. The advertisement shows a woman cleaning a kitchen with a product that looks to be easy and enjoyable to use. The woman is smiling while she does her chore as she turns towards the camera and states on how quick the product helped her to clean the kitchen. Both Billy and Sally sit patiently through the advertisement and wait for their show to restart. They do not pay any attention towards th e advertisement. This is a scene that takes place at every household. Even though the time span is very short but the social impact is way beyond our imagination. A lot of individuals live their lives without being aware that how there advertisements shape their lives and how their roles get socialized. Advertisements places genders into given set roles and help perpetuate gender stereotypes. Gender representation has always been vital in order to understand what it actually means to be male or female. In the images provided to us in the patriarchal mass media surrounding us, it is always supposed that it has been encouraged to mould oneself according to a set ideal. For women, it means passivity, elegance, beauty, and good domestic ability. While for a man it means being aggressive, competitive and business minded. Now in the 21st century however, these ideas no longer seen important in order to be accepted into a society. Now, women are often self-reliant and career focused while a lot of men feel that it is their right to express themselves and indulgence themselves, to love and be loved. The new woman and new man are present in the contemporary society but the representation in advertisement is otherwise. As it is seen in the media, the role of women is highly limiting and stereotypical. Association of women with specific domestic roles has been solidified in advertisement. Women have been portrayed not as decision makers but as domestic providers who are dependent on men and are sex objects. Even though the number of offensive advertisements has declined but women are still seen as belonging to the private life of their homes. Women have to play multiple roles. One dimension is the fulfillment of her home duties and the other being a complete sex object. Early on, in the beginning of the nineteenth century, media provided a very clear cut distinction in roles of gender and the different variations within which they are exhibited. The typical

Contemporary Struggles Within Christianity and Islam Essay

Contemporary Struggles Within Christianity and Islam - Essay Example These issues are lack of fellowship and the lack of Biblical knowledge amongst Christians. However, apart from these culturally based struggles, Christianity is also split by the pressures that stem from modern society. In essence, certain Christians do not have sufficient knowledge of the Bible or its use. Today, not everyone who professes to reading the Bible does so during a week’s time (Geisler, 2010). The Bible is essentially the word of God, as the foundation of the Christian belief. Today, however, many Christians lack the fundamental beliefs of Christianity, the struggle becomes how such individuals can call themselves Christians while they do not even read the Bible and appreciate the fundamental beliefs of Christianity. In addition, since Christians are called to strengthen their fellowship with God and other believers, one contemporary struggle within Christianity is the maintenance of this fellowship. The church provides a place where Christians can gather and fell owship with God and other Christians. However, contemporary lifestyles limit people’s attendance of church compared to the onset of Christianity. The percentage of churches in the current era has dwindled significantly as Christians continue to draw away from attending church fellowships. Christianity beliefs assert that when Christians’ fellowship with one another, the blood of Jesus Christ cleanses them. Today, a key struggle within Christianity is support mechanisms amongst believers who become vulnerable to negative teachings in the absence of fellowship. Traditional Christian beliefs provide that when Christians’ fellowship with one another and God, such Christians do not walk in darkness, for instance; they do not lie, steal or kill. Today, Christianity continues to be split by evils such as stealing; even amongst church leaders. Another significant struggle within Christianity is the lack of Biblical knowledge and its ultimate understanding. Responsibilit ies and lifestyles in the modern day deter Christians from reading or studying the Bible. This results in internal issues among Christians who hold different beliefs. For instance, today, it is common to hear Christian groups asserting they know when the world will come to an end, despite the Bible’s clear teachings that only God is privy to such information (Williams, 2000). This has over the past caused substantial problems among Christians, especially following the emergence of false prophets and prophesies. Another formidable struggle within Christianity is finding the right balance between Christians and Muslims, particularly after the advent of terrorism acts across the globe. Struggles within Islam Islam’s doctrines center on the beliefs of peace and love. However, the Islam’s main struggle today lies in the association of Muslims with acts of terrorism and other heinous crimes like piracy and kidnapping. Since 9/11, Muslims face stigmatization on matters concerning security. This stigmatization further augments struggles within Islam, concerning those who condone acts of terrorism and piracy and those who abide by the traditional beliefs of Islam like the maintenance of peace and love amongst human kind (Al-Alwani, 2005). Allah’s teachings, which are the foundation on which Islam is built, demand the maintenance of virtues amongst Muslims. However, modernity has distorted these virtues allowing Muslims to behave in

US History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

US History - Essay Example Zinn occurs to point out how the wicked weaknesses of men may be conveyed and discerned through their approach of treating women. Regardless of disposition, apparently, it is the inherent consideration of men to govern and create their choice of perception freely which sets a state of disturbance in equilibrium for which history can be schemed against to distribute strength eventually in such a way as for developing societies to realize all the dues of women at an instant of being oppressed. In the process of addressing such imbalance of natures and share of control, the shaping of history bears witness to slavery which is not merely confined to gender but to color discrimination as well and the attributes of the oppressors who are chiefly males with mixed gender affiliates. Consequently, the political struggle in an intimate oppression of several forms, designating women as sex slaves, child bearers, servants, and companions, would amount to an amply great cause for women to take a gradual course of action. In resolving to put the people’s history in a context of inequality between sexes as the principal issue of crises across times, women are bound to make an impact through stories that indicate paths to achieving sensible ends with each personal battle. This, as it turns out, is for the world to understand that history, as a deadly tool, is more than a demonstration of established laws, economies, and industries according to potentials that reside in men. By inferring â€Å"It would be an exaggeration to say that women were treated equally with men; but they were treated with respect, and the communal nature of the society gave them a more important place†, Zinn likely takes the position of persuading his readers toward the belief that gender inequality matters with huge influence and serves as a chronic disease that can only be dealt with by a

Introduction to criminal justice Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Introduction to criminal justice - Assignment Example The extrajudicial measures stipulated by the Act have significantly decreased incidents through which the offending youth are charged. The measures, which include police cautions, referrals, crown cautions, taking no further action by the police and extrajudicial sanctions, are presumed to be sufficient to hold nonviolent and first-time offenders accountable for their actions. However, the presumption was ill-adviced, as shown by the lack of effectiveness on most of the first time offenders as well as the youth who participated in serious crimes. For example, a 2013 poll has shown that among the youth who committed violent crimes in 2011 and were given lenient judgments through extrajudicial means, 60 percent have already re-offended, which is only within a period of two years. For such serious youth crimes, prison sentences have declined by 25 percent within the same two year period. Before enacting the YCJA in 2003, the rate of youth incarceration in Canada was among the highest in the Western countries. It was characteristic of youth sentences not being proportionate to the degree of seriousness of the committed crime. Custody was a common sentence even in cases not considered to be serious, and the youth courts handed very invasive sentences for minor crimes in a bid to address social and psychological needs. However, the YCJA reserves custody sentences for violent and repeat offenders as well as those who did not comply with optional sentences. This has given plenty of room for the increase of first-time offenders who often go free. Question Two As a crime prevention initiative, sentencing aims to contribute towards maintaining a safe, peaceful and just society as well as respecting the law. With an emphasis on the future conduct, rehabilitative sentencing principles are oriented towards curing offending persons of the causes that led them to crime. On the other hand, retributive principles have their focus on the past conduct of the offending persons, mak ing them pay for their crimes. Unlike rehabilitative measures which promote responsibility among offenders and an acknowledgment of the damage done, retributive principles also place a lot of emphasis on expressing the disproval of the society regarding crime. In the past two decades, sentencing in Canada has shifted from rehabilitative to retributive principles because of the emphasis of the criminal justice system’s emphasis on crime prevention. In 1997, the criminal justice system, as well as people who participated in a poll, supported alternative sentencing, community service and rehabilitation services rather than prison and heavy fines. However, after the turn of the millennium and in keeping with the provisions of section 718(b) of deterring offenders and potential offenders from participating in crime, there was a shift. The retributive principles were believed to send messages of severe punishment for crime. For example, the sentence for using a firearm while commit ting a crime increased from 10 years in 1999 to 25 years in 2001. In the same period, a life sentence for a violent offence was handed at the second conviction, down from the third one. That was a time when the criminal code had 29 offences that triggered the mandatory minimum sentence, whereas six years earlier there were only 19. With the increasing popularity of the mandatory minimum sentence among politicians, many private bills have been enacted with the belief that harsh penalties are effective

Essay plan ( management employee relation ) Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Plan ( management employee relation ) - Essay Example One instrument of improving employee-management relations is by using employee empowerment method. By empowering you mean that you delegate more authority to them and give more power to subordinate. This way they can come up with new ideas and cost cutting methods and firms might not only cut costs but it might also benefit from good relationship with employees. 2. According to a book written by John Gennard on employee relations, employee-management relationship suffers because of different aims of both management and employees. For example, management wants higher profits which includes lowering costs and could lead to downsizing and loss of job for labor. On the other hand, labor wants the security of their jobs and higher wages. The book further states that during recession these aims become more conflicting and the need to maintain cordial relations become more vital. The book recommends that this relationship could be improved by bilateral negotiation between management and labor union and by joint consultation by the both parties before decision making. For example, in recession due to slump in demand your organization cannot pay high labor costs and firing is inevitable. But this can be avoided if management decides to involve labor union in the decision making process.

Teen Pregnancy Essay Example for Free

Teen Pregnancy Essay Media does not give a realistic image of Teen Pregnancy In the United States, teenage pregnancy has become a common occurrence with three out of ten girls getting pregnant before the age of twenty (Dooley). Most young teenagers feel as if conception will never come from their scandalous deeds but, in fact, it happens more often than what they think. The increasing media coverage on television programming, such as 16 and Pregnant and the movie, Juno, is showing the young adolescents, it is okay to be pregnant. The series 16 and Pregnant and the movie Juno, are both based upon teenagers getting pregnant and going through the television reality of having a child. Both the television show and move are examples of the Medias image of teen pregnancy. Some individuals believe that these shows and movies are not a realistic image of pregnancy. Television Media is not showing the real emotional aspects of putting a baby up for adoption, they are not showing the struggles a single mother actually goes through and they are portraying baby bumps as if they were fashion accessory. In the television series 16 and Pregnant, one of the teenagers decides to give their baby up for adoption. In the series, the media doesn’t provide the viewers with a twenty-four-seven base image, of her going through each of the steps, to give up the baby. What they show is different clips of the teenager, which provide some of her experience. People believe that this show, 16 and Pregnant, has given young teenagers who are sexually active and are not using protection, a good reality check. That is not what they are doing though, what they are doing is showing it is okay to just give up their child as a way out, showing it is easy to just give up their child and live happily ever after. Even in the movie Juno, the main star becomes pregnant and at first wants to do an abortion but then quickly changes her mind and decides to give the baby up for adoption, when being in the abortion clinic was more like being in a tattoo parlor. The teenage girl, in the movie, looks in a newspaper and finds a random family, with no emotions at all; and decides that is the family her baby is going to. â€Å"You realize it [Juno] is just a superior romantic comedy that bears no relationship to reality† (Horin). Giving up a baby for adoption is a lot harder than it has been shown on television. My friend went through giving her daughter up for adoption; she was also a teen mother. Not once did her experience look anything like the show 16 and Pregnant or the movie Juno, that is because, her experience was reality. During her pregnancy, she had a hard time juggling school and going to and from Dr Appointments. My friend’s family wasn’t supportive of her decisions, like the families on television. She was actually in the pregnancy alone, the father of the baby was not there for moral support, nor was her family there. She had to provide DNA testing to find the father of the baby to make sure he would sign off all rights to her daughter, and then she had to pick out a family that the adoption clinic provided. Adoption is an all out emotional experience, not once does a young individual feel no emotions, to such a enormous life changing decision. Once the decision is decided and the paper work is complete, there is no going back. Another reason that television media doesn’t show a realistic image of teen pregnancy is because they mislead what a single mother is. When a young individual is still in high school and they get pregnant there is no guarantee that they will still be allowed to attend the high school they are currently going to. As a single parent, they will need to have a high school diploma, that way they can get a career, to be able to support a child alone. Now a day, even with no college education it is simply hard to find a good job. As a single parent there is no proof that their child’s father or child’s mother will play the role they are supposed to. In my personal situation I got pregnant at the age of 18 and I had my daughter when I was 19 years old; I didn’t get my GED until I was 20 years old. As a single mother it is the hardest job I believe I will have to face. When I was pregnant I watched the movie Juno and the show 16 and Pregnant, I thought being a parent was going to be easy. When my daughter was 4months, her father took himself out of our lives. I do not have any information on his whereabouts. I filed child support, believing that he would have to pay, I was wrong. Being a single mother isn’t as easy as it is described on television. Where a single mother files child support and two weeks later they are receiving payments from the father. I have been fighting with child support for over a year to get my child’s father to pay child support. Every situation is not going to be like reality television where everything works out perfectly and everyone lives happily ever after. There is going to be hard times about relationships, money, and family issues. Life, they [teens] need to know, is no Hollywood movie (Horin). Baby bumps have become a huge trend in fashion news. When attending a store and standing in the checkout line, individuals usually see magazines like, â€Å"OK! † and â€Å"People,† gossiping about who is pregnant and about their baby bump. Media provides an image of pregnancy as a fashion accessory because they constantly talk about who is pregnant and how beautiful they are with a baby bump. When young adolescents see the media image of pregnancy they believe that being pregnant is just a way to become beautiful and famous. For example, the television series, 16 and Pregnant gives young adolescent the image of baby bumps being a fashion accessory. The television series 16 and pregnant is about six pregnant teenagers who go through every day struggles, during pregnancy and even after they have had the baby. This show is supposed to make young adolescents become more aware of what they will have to go through if they become pregnant. Little does the media know, the image that a young individual gets is, they can become pregnant and become famous. Jill Palomo explained in an article: â€Å"I have witnessed adolescent girls saying statements like â€Å"If only I was pregnant, I could be famous† or â€Å"MTV doesnt make having a baby as a teenager look too hard. † It is sad that instead of the initial goal, being to show teenagers the harsh reality of pregnancy, it has now turned glamorous. † Despite how anyone feels on the concern, teen pregnancy has multiple consequences that the television media does not portray. Adoption is an answer to get their way out of not raising a child but doesn’t mean they will be emotionally okay with their decision the rest of their life. Even if a teenager decides they are going to keep the baby, there is no guarantee the father or family will be there to help raise that child and they will then have to learn to be a single mother. A young individual should not get pregnant just because it is a fashion trend with the media. I wouldn’t be the one to believe that television is a great way to get an image of the experience of being a parent. I have watched the television shows and movies about teen pregnancies, I am convinced they have everything handed them, and the meida puts off that it is okay to be a teenage mom. My knowledge comes from the real life version of being a young single mother.

Electromagnetic spectrum Essay Example for Free

Electromagnetic spectrum Essay Many of the well-known scientists explore several types of waves and gave their theories, statements, and practical applications in this field. These waves are composed in a manner so one can measure their wavelength and frequency as well. These types of wavelength are declared as â€Å"Low notes† and â€Å"High notes†. Low notes have a low frequency and a long wavelength; where as High notes have high frequency and a shorter wavelength. These electromagnetic waves are result of electrically charged particles, such waves are also declared as â€Å"Electromagnetic Radiation†, as they radiate initially from the electrically charged particles. These waves can easily pass through any empty space, air and other more substances as well. According to research it was explored by many of the scientist that these radiations has fundamentally a â€Å"Dual Personality† as it behaves as waves and stream of particles which are known as â€Å"photons â€Å"as well. In addition the photons have no group as well as they have very short wavelength too. (Alvino, G, 75) SECTIONS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: Fundamentally electromagnetic spectrum covers a wide range of wavelength and photon energies as well. The spectrum is usually segmented into seven sections, which are declared as X-ray, Infrared, and Ultraviolet, Microwave, Visible, Gamma ray radiation and Radio waves. INFRARED RAYS: Fundamentally this particular term† Infrared† covers a wide range of frequency. The wavelength range initiates from about 1 millimeter down to 750 nm. Those rays, which are approximately adjacent to visible spectrum, are called â€Å"Near infrared† and those who have longer wavelength section are declared as â€Å"Far infrared†. These rays are widely utilized in exploring vibration spectra of molecules. In connections with matter, infrared mainly acts to place molecules into pulsation. These rays doesn’t have good impact on atmosphere as it never penetrate atmosphere but still infrared are utilize to initially acts to set molecules into vibration. VISIBLE LIGHT:- This is fundamentally the narrow visible section of electromagnetic spectrum. This thin section keeps up a correspondence to the wavelengths closer to the maximum of the Suns radiation curve. Visible light is mainly utilized in elevating electrons to higher energy levels. In this particular case white light can be parted into its spectral colors by dispersion in a prism. ULTRAVIOLET RAYS: Ultraviolet rays are approximately below the region where visible light is explored and this was proofed by many of the well-known scientist by their statements and their theories as well. In addition these rays cause harm as it has shorter wavelength that can reach the ionization energy for many molecules, so this outcome in hazards to other ionizing radiations as well. While welding, protective eye shields must be utilized because this ultraviolet substance of welding arcs can inflame once eyes. X-RAYS: When high-energy electrons struck a metal target then these rays start penetrating, they are highly penetrating rays. According to research it was explored that just after the discovery of x-rays they are started being used in medical to image broken bones. Fundamentally when these rays have interaction with matter they ionize radiations and generate physiological possessions, which are basically never observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue. GAMMA RAYS: Gamma rays are generally utilized to denote electromagnetic radiation from the center as a part of a radioactive process. Fundamentally their nuclear energy is extremely high as such radiations are initiated in the electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus as a part or as a result of radioactive procedures. X-rays and Gamma rays are quite identical as they both are electromagnetic rays, these are simply some declaration regarding source rather than implying different kinds of radiation. (Alvino, G, 75-79) Below is the table, which will provide you better understanding and clear the entire conceptions as well. Wavelengths, frequencies, and energies for selected regions of the electromagnetic spectrum are mentioned in this, which was fundamentally result of several researches.

Social and Economic Impact of Tuberculosis

Social and Economic Impact of Tuberculosis Introduction Overview Tuberculosis is a common and infectious communicable disease that is caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis. It is of two principle kinds: pulmonary TB, which usually attacks the lungs, and extra-pulmonary TB, which attacks any part of the body, such as: the lymphatic, pleural, bone and/or joint, genitourinary, miliary, peritoneal, meninges and/or central nervous system (CNS), and all other sites combined. Pulmonary TB sometimes combined with extra pulmonary tuberculosis (Parimon, 2008; Sreeramareddy et al., 2008; Friedman, 2001). Tuberculosis is spread in form of droplets which are expelled when the infected persons cough, sneeze, speak, or sing. Close, prolonged, frequent, or intense contacts are the main ways that leads to 22% of the infection rate. Other resources include: foreign-born from areas where TB is common, residents and employees living in plagued congregate settings, health care workers who serve severely infected clients, low-income populations, highly inflicted racial or ethnic minority populations, children exposed to severely infected adults, and persons who inject illicit drugs. Extra pulmonary TB that occurs outside the lungs may spread through lymphatic or hematogenous dissemination to any tract or through coughing and swallowing to the gastrointestinal tract. Such a type of bacteria may remain dormant for years at a particular site before causing the disease. Since extra pulmonary TB can affect virtually all organs, it has a wide variety of clinical manifestations. A matter which causes difficulty and delay in its diagnosis (Mehta, 1991; Gonzalez et al., 2003). Though, it is said to be more often diagnosed in women and young patients (Rieder et al., 1990; Gonzalez et al., 2003; Yang et al., 2004; Noertjojo et al., 2002; Cowie and Sharpe, 1997; Antony et al., 1995; Chan-Yeung et al.,2002). In the United States, extra pulmonary TB is associated with ethnic minorities and with those born in other countries (Rieder et al., 1990) while in Asia, lymphatic TB occupies the front position of the risky infectious diseases (Cowie and Sharpe, 1997, 1998; Moudgil and Leitch, 1994; Nisar et al., 1991; Ormerod, et al., 1991). A study of Somali TB patients in Minnesota showed frequent lymphatic TB as well (Kempainen, et al., 2001). In HIV-infected patients, the frequency of extra pulmonary TB depends on the degree of decrease in cellular immunity (Huebner and Castro, 1995; Barnes, et.al., 1991). While in patients with

Gus in James Duncans The River Why Essay -- James Duncan River Why Es

Gus in James Duncan's The River Why James Duncan’s book entitled, The River Why, focuses around the main character, Gus, and how he changes throughout the book. In this book Gus is discovering what life really is and that the whole world does not revolve around fishing. After moving out of his erratic house he spends all of his time fishing at his remote cabin, but this leaves him unhappy and a little insane. He embarks on a search for him self and for his own beliefs. Duncan changes Gus throughout the book, making Gus realize that there are more important things to life than fishing, and these things can lead to a happy fulfilled life, which in turn will help Gus enjoy life and fishing more. Duncan introduces a character, Eddy, who significantly changes Gus’s views on what he needs in his life and she gives Gus a sense of motivation or inspiration. Eddy changes Gus by their first encounter with each other, when Eddy instills in Gus a need to fulfill his life and when they meet up again, completing his ne ed. Fishing is Gus’s first passion but he loses it after he puts all of himself into it, and when Eddy comes into his picture Gus feels a need to have more in his life, like love. Through finding love he re-finds his passion for fishing and learns more about himself. When Eddy and Gus finally get together, he sees this â€Å"equilibrium† between his old passion, fishing, and his new one, Eddy. Duncan’s use of Eddy gives Gus a new found sense of purpose and to have a more fulfilled life is a critical step in Gus’s development as a character. This is why Eddy is the most important character to this book, because she gives Gus inspiration to find himself. On their first encounter with one another Gus is compelled by her differences in dress, techniques and gear. After she leaves, Gus feels a â€Å"need† to fulfill his empty life. Finally when she shows back up in his life, Gus then has everything he could ever ask for: a beautiful woman who loves to fish, just like him. He explains how he first sees Eddy on page 151 as: â€Å"A barefoot girl. A full-grown one. One who wore the top tenth or so of what had long ago been a pair of blue jeans. One who wore a short, skin-tight, sleeveless sky-colored t-shirt through †¦which revealed the shape of the†¦Ã¢â‚¬  After sneaking his way up to the tree where she sat â€Å"motionless†, not noticing Gus, his attention is diverted, if not comp... ...fter hearing stories of Gus the great fisherman. Eddy sees more in Gus than she thought she would, so she decides to come back the next day to talk. The next day she gives Gus a plan that he must follow of catching a fish with her techniques. He finds his equilibrium on page 274 â€Å"Equilibrium derived from a kind of inner balance: it transmitted itself from the soul to the mind, and from the mind to the body, and when a man possessed of it put his hand to an art or craft he was capable of unheard of feats.† Gus’s equilibrium was his love for Eddy and he states on the same page â€Å"Why shouldn’t love be my Equilibrium? Why shouldn’t love be the forceless force running through the wound and into the fish? Couldn’t love create that sacred balance? Wouldn’t love dissolve all stress?†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Eddy also changes as person because she stays longer and longer with Gus, doing all sorts of things together, eventually marrying Gus. They both find their equilibrium in each other. Gus re-finds his fishing passion through Eddy, but looks on everything in a whole different way. Eddy gave Gus motivation to know himself and he fulfills the emptiness. He got the two loves of his life: fishing and Eddy.

A Separate Peace - Thematic Analysis :: essays research papers

An analysis of John Knowles A Separate Peace brings up the theme of man's inhumanity to his fellow man. What makes this novel unique is that in protesting war, Knowles never overtly referred to the blood and gore of war; he showed the consequences of war, some paralleling the nature of war and some simply laying out how World War II affected noncombatants thousand miles away. There have been many books written about war, what happens, why it happens, and why wars should stop. Knowles explains through the life of Finny why war never will cease, with only one death in the entire book; a quiet one at that. When Gene is responsible for Finny's fall off the tree, the reader is in some confusion as to what really happened. All the book reads at this juncture is "Holding firmly to the trunk, I took a step near him, and then my knees bounced and I jounced the limb. Finny, his balance gone, swung his head to look at me for an instant with extreme interest, and then he tumbled sideways, broke through the little branches below and hit the bank with a sickening, unnatural thud." The reader does not know whether it was accidental or intentional. It is not until later that Finny realizes that Gene is responsible for his crippling, and what a natural thing it was to do. Gene bounced the branch just to see if he could make the invincible Finny fall; at least, this is why Gene claims he did it. This is true, but at some level, Gene was scared of Finny, of his confidence, his abilities, and his potential for breaking records. Consider Gene's paranoia over Finny's attempts to make him advent urous. Gene interprets these genuine acts of friendship as attempts to prevent him from reaching the top of the academic ladder. This paranoia parallels war in that after it is declared, no one is safe. Countries, leaders, people suspicious of all who are perceived as a threat, causing them to lash out at anyone even peripherally involved. Adequately proven in A Separate Peace, there are also historical examples: the Nazi death camps, the American Japanese-American relocation camps, and the McCarthyism of the fifties. Apparently, in America, the Constitution rules until war is declared, then paranoia and vindictiveness take charge. When Gene had the opportunity to get back at Finny, he did, which is so human it is disheartening.

china :: essays research papers

China’s Three Gorges: Before the Flood   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  China’s Three Gorges Dam is the largest project in history since The Great Wall. When the dam is completed twelve years from now, it will be the most powerful dam ever built. The dam will stand 607 feet high and more than a mile wide., equivalent to 18 nuclear power plants. At peak load, 26 turbines will generate 18,200 megawatts of electricity It will create a reservoir 370 miles long, with a system of locks designed to bring prosperity through maritime commerce to China’s interior( Zich 8).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many of the inhabitants of the Yangtze River will be forced from their ancestral homes and farms. Many of the cities along the rivers bank will be devastated. Half the people destined to be moved are farmers. The reservoir will take up as many as 240,000 acres of farmland. Some of the inhabitants of the region are in favor of the dam and believe it will help future generations, while others believe the dam will destroy much of the cultural and historical value of the area. Archaeologists estimate that some 8,000 unexcavated sites will be lost forever in a tomb of water and sediment. ( Zich 20)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Yangtze River has shaped the landscape of China over of the centuries and has created different cultural and territorial boundaries. The river and tributaries encompass over 700,000 square miles. The river divides China into northern and southern regions. It separates cultural and religious differences and matters as simple as culinary tastes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Three Gorges region represents one of the true seats of Chinese civilization. In this region history intersects with myth. The river and the region have many religious and metaphorical connotations. The gorges were supposedly created by a folk hero, Yu. With the help of a troop of dragons, reconfigured China’s hills and valleys to drain the land and make it habitable for humans. (Zich 21) The gorges have inspired artists and poets to create and reflect on the remarkable landscape of the Three Gorges.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Along the banks of the Yangtze River many factories and mills deposit pollutants which flow throughout the region and away from the Three Gorges region due to the powerful nature of the river. Many opponents of the dam warn that the Three Gorges reservoir will turn into a huge cesspool.

Hobbes Against Limited Government

Explain and discuss Hobbes' belief that neither limited government (where the sovereign is bound by laws) nor divided government (a system of checks and balances) is a practical possibility. Word Count: 2, 764 words In Leviathan, Hobbes imagines rational self-interested parties in a state of nature choosing among three alternatives: remaining in this state of nature; grouping themselves together under a government with limited, or divided, power and authority; or forming themselves into a civil society governed by a sovereign with unlimited power and authority. He contends, however, that the second alternative is basically illusory. Because of the constant danger of factionalism, civil war, and social disintegration in a group governed by a â€Å"mixarchy† with limited or divided power, such a form of social organization does not provide its members with sufficient security to really remove them from the state of nature. The choice of the parties, according to Hobbes, is therefore reduced to one between absolute sovereignty and the state of nature, and as the state of nature is â€Å"a state of war of all against all† Hobbes concludes that the parties would choose absolute government as the lesser evil. Absolute monarchy is the form of absolute government Hobbes prefers – as this furthers his political agenda of providing a means to resolve the civil conflict devastating his country – but nothing in his theory of sovereignty depends on the preference. In fact his concept of absolute sovereignty can be more convincing when not linked to a monarch, thus in this essay I will Hobbes’s former argument in isolation. Why is absolute sovereignty necessary? Hobbes's primary argument for the doctrine of absolute sovereignty is essentially an argument against right reason. Hobbes claims that any appeal to right reason or â€Å"the truth† comprises a completely inadequate basis for the resolution of disputes, because if disputes are about what the truth actually is, then appealing to these concepts – which cannot be identified without ambiguity or uncertainty – is essentially inconclusive and therefore self-defeating. Concern for the truth or right reason will not resolve isputes successfully or peacefully when people have entrenched and irreconcilable positions, because that is precisely the route to conflict and violence — â€Å"the state of war, of every man against every man. † Hobbes establishes that if each individual were allowed the liberty to follow his own conscience without constraint, then as such consciences vary, peace and harmony in the state would be short lived due to a persistent tendenc y to disagreement and civil disobedience. This diversity of consciences and the unrestrained exercise of individual judgment would render any common action highly uncertain or virtually impossible. Although men, according to Hobbes, are not political by nature, their association depends on an agreement to observe justice among men who disagree about who ought to receive what, thus they need common standards of right and wrong to regulate their affairs. Where it is impossible to obtain a unanimity of wills and agreement a common policy cannot be determined so, Hobbes informs us, an artificial will or person must be created and accepted. This â€Å"artificial right reason† introduces a public level of judgment that takes precedence over private judgments, so the problems of the latter are avoided. A sovereign may produce an incorrect answer which does not correlate with the truth, but the judgment stands â€Å"not because it is his private Sentence; but because he giveth it by Authority of the Sovereign †¦ which is Law. † Even if one believes that the sovereign’s decision is fundamentally wrong, civil disobedience is prohibited. That person has an obligation to obey, or face the consequences of the punishment power exercised by the sovereign. Thus, Hobbes’s sole and unique remedy for the â€Å"state of war against all† supports the concept of absolute sovereignty as a necessary and sufficient condition for the formation of a genuine political union. A possible argument against this contention that states without an absolute government will inevitably deteriorate into a state of war is that there have been numerous small, so-called â€Å"acephalous† societies that exist for long periods without any stable leadership, law or politics in their daily lives. On the small scale at least these societies can get by with the laws f nature alone, yet Hobbes seems to suggest that their existence is impossible to explain. Scholars have suggested that Hobbes’s state of nature is peopled with the men of the seventeenth century, and his theory is designed around the problem of sustaining and policing a large and prosperous society, so this may not be a major defect, as acephalous societies tend to be relative ly rare, small and isolated. Hampton contends that Hobbes's argument fails to prove that people, as he describes them, would institute his definition an absolute sovereign. Hobbes proposes that the creation of an absolute sovereign is necessary to secure peace in the commonwealth, but the very existence of the sovereign is ultimately determined by the people as subjects. Thus, Hampton argues that the subjects cannot create a sovereign who meets the definition given by Hobbes — a ruler who decides all questions in the commonwealth and whose reign is absolute and permanent. Hence, it does not follow that peace and harmony in civil society can be secured and guaranteed by the adoption of Hobbes's scheme. Hampton’s argument is, I believe, a sound one and while it questions the likelihood of establishing an absolute sovereign, its relevance is limited here as the society Hobbes is writing for already have a monarch, which he endeavours to persuade them to obey. Why does Hobbes believe limited government is not possible? Hobbes sets out to demonstrate that civil society can only be truly unified when the state incorporates a single validating authority with clearly defined decision-making procedures, which can arrive at definite decisions and initiate common action — despite a divergence of consciences. Some scholars suggest that Hobbes requires a single human decision-maker and fails to recognise that a group of decision makers would have the same effect, such as a parliament with a set of clearly entrenched rules or laws. However, on a wider reading of his works, it seems to me that Hobbes believed in any form of absolute government – an absolute democracy, aristocracy, or closed oligarchy would also be feasible, so long as the power of the group is absolute. Hobbes’s assumption is that human disagreement is all pervasive; that the subjects of a commonwealth are incapable of reaching a unified interpretation of a constitution and, therefore, an adjudicator (or adjudicative body) will be needed to interpret the constitution for them. Such a body constrained by law would simply fail because laws, and the words which constitute them, can always be subjected to various interpretations. Therefore, some member of the political system must have the authority to determine what the law is with a clear, unambiguous and indisputable answer. Hobbes contends that if there is a power that is limited within a state, then it must be limited by a greater power. So the search for the greatest power in the commonwealth – the sovereign power – will be realised when we come to an ultimate power, that effectively limits all others, but which is unlimited in its own right. The authority that determines the meaning of the laws and can force obedience to those laws by all is effectively the absolute sovereign because the power to reach a final binding decision is located in it, even if that body regularly delegates power to another. So, for example, if the King is dependent on an assembly, then it is the latter body which is ultimately sovereign. In essence, Hobbes claims that a government comes into existence only with the appointment of a ruler with absolute power — a power that effectively transcends all others, and over which there is no appeal. Any authority with that standing and intended to perform that task according to Hobbes must be legally absolute, that is, unchallengeable in the name of any other legal authority. If the authority cannot enforce obedience to the laws by all, then they have no power, and the Government is not constrained by law. Why does Hobbes contend divided government is not a practical possibility? Hobbes believes a government limited by law is also necessarily divided, and this appears sound. Further, he contends that such a divided government, or a system of checks and balances where power is spread between various branches of government, is fundamentally unstable and will inevitably degenerate into civil war. A government with sovereignty divided among different branches was rejected by Hobbes in the following terms: â€Å"For what is to divide the Power of a Commonwealth but to dissolve it; for Powers divided mutually destroy each other. Once again Hobbes maintains that what destroys this kind of constitutional arrangement is the impossibility of agreement as to the interpretation and enforcement of moral rules or principles. The heads of all divided governments necessarily live in a state of nature with respect to one another. Each branch acts for its own self-interest, and with no common power ove r them, will transcend into a state of war with respect to one another. Each branch is assumed to behave just as humans would: in a state of nature, and exclusively motivated by their egocentric and selfish tendencies, civil war will inevitably follow. Hobbes believed a state to be an artificially organized whole run by a person’s mind, so it can be expected to behave as a body does (given that a body too is an organized whole run by a human mind). Hobbes’s vision is of a unitary state with one government run by a mind, or a group of minds, which will behave like a small organization run by a human mind. Problems with these arguments: History is against Hobbes, as in reality divided governments can – and do – work well, certainly they are no more unstable than some absolute governments. The United States of America is a paradigm example, despite the American Civil War of 1861-1865, few would argue that their constitution successfully divides power between the separate branches – parliament, legislature, and judiciary – who each act as a check and balance on the other branches to prevent the abuse of absolute power. It is also conceptually possible to have a limited government which is not seriously divided. New Zealand is close to this model – while the Governor-General has a power to veto laws, by convention this is never exercised. Where such limited governments rule, there seems to be no increased concern of the sovereign abrogating the laws. Both limited government which is not divided, and divided government, can work in a stable way as checks and balances on power effectively impose a minimum standard of competence and thought, which makes for more rationality (and less room for errors) by those in power. History therefore proves there must be an error in Hobbes’s theory. But this does not mean his entire argument is wrong, his theory may be adapted to cope with this development: it is not simply true that a state of nature between human-like actors is necessarily a state of war – for the latter to result the former also requires other factors, including scarcity (which does not generally exist for politicians, hence the success of divided governments). Hobbes’s argument presupposes scarcity between individuals, and it is also true that states may be in situations of relative scarcity with one another – so they too may drift into a state of international war. Another explanation for this phenomenon is that the collective action of members of governmental branches is not the same as individual action. It is too simplistic to argue that such branches behave just like giant robots or individual people would, as they are divided by the varying individual consciences of their members. For a group to behave like an individual its members must subsume their own desires and motivations to peruse those of the group, but there is no proof that primarily selfish people, as Hobbes defines them, would do this. In reality, branch members may be aligned with members of other branches – particularly as they are usually elected by each other – inhibiting a war between the branches of government. This analogy may also extend to the relationship between nations, which in the opinion of this author, are currently generally not in a state of war. The European Union has been remarkably successful at fostering commercial and psychological links between state members – so these hitherto competing nations no longer regularly engage with one another in warfare. Perhaps Hobbes would reply that members of the European Economic Community now exist as a single state, rather than individually. This is doubtful however, as the European Union does not have a collective military force, which Hobbes considered a necessary common power for a government. Thus, at least in Europe, there exist today states which are in a state of nature with respect to one another in Hobbesian sense, yet they are in a state of real peace. Problems with Hobbes’s remedy: Some academics have suggested that perhaps Hobbes’s remedy – absolute government – is worse than the disease he attempts to avoid – the state of war. Under an absolute government there cannot be respect for individual rights in the sense of a law protecting such rights that the sovereign cannot override. But Hobbes argues that if people accept the necessity of absolute government then there is no incentive for that government to systematically violate the rights of human subjects, as if people do not rebel then the government will have no reason to think their power is under threat. Vitally, Hobbes’s theory assumes the rationality of the sovereign, but there are intuitive reasons for thinking that people in powerful positions are not psychologically usual, or rational. Acton’s famous aphorism â€Å"Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely. Great men are almost always bad men,† reflects the historical trend of powerful, aggressive and seemingly irrational leaders such as Stalin and Hitler. In Leviathan, Hobbes himself notes that people may object to exposing themselves to â€Å"the lusts, and irregular passions of him, or them that have so unlimited a power in their hands. His later argument that a sovereign who is already on a pedestal of glory will not desire even more seems dubious, and also seems to directly contradict his argument of a â€Å"general inclination of all mankind a perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death. † Furthermore, absolute governments typically have am bitious foreign policy, Hobbes confessed this: â€Å"Kings, whose power is greatest, turn their endeavours to the assuring it at home by laws, or abroad by wars: and when that is done, there succeedeth a new desire; in some, of fame from new conquest. Maintaining a large army to succeed in battle will require heavy taxation and conscription, as Hobbes knew The Royal Government of France had implemented. Hobbes basic proposition is that obeying the government is the only way a peaceful life can be achieved. However, life might still be â€Å"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short† for people who obey their governments and are conscripted into armies with high casualty rates. The prospect of international war did not seem to concern Hobbes greatly – this optimism probably stems from his personal experiences of the English and French international conflicts, which were far less destructive than the interpersonal conflict observed in civil wars. Hobbes would have known of the incredibly destructive Thirty Years’ War however, and as modern technology has since vastly increased the possibility of international harm, in the opinion of this author, a constant state of international war is a major concern and if it inevitably stems from organised polity, then this is not unquestionably better than a state of nature. Conclusion The alternatives available when Hobbes wrote, given England’s political history, did seem to be only absolute monarchy or anarchy and dissolution. We now know that a middle possibility does exist, a sovereign body may be limited by something that is not a superior body: an elected body of men may enjoy unlimited legislative powers, yet face the possibility of dismissal at the next election. Hobbes emphasised that a government draws its authority from below; its subsequent performance can also be subject to periodic review from below. Electorates† are neither superior decision-making bodies, nor are they organised bodies at all – only all electors taken collectively. Yet their existence may effectively restrain sovereign legislature’s absolute constitutional freedom, thereby avoiding the Hobbesian dilemma that a decision-making authority can be checked only by a rival or by a more powerful body. In his autobiography, Hobbes states that the goal of publishing Thucydides was to â€Å"point out how inadequate democracy is, and how much wiser one man is than a multitude. † Hobbes clearly believed that democracy posed many threats to political stability. But it is probably an exaggeration to think of Hobbes as anti-democratic in a modern sense, in his day democracies – such as ancient Athens – failed to last, and seemed practical only for small states as they required active and continuous participation by the people in their own government. Hobbes should not be assumed to be opposed to the large modern democracies we have today, which he never could have predicted or imagined. References: Finn, S. (2006). Thomas Hobbes and the Politics of Natural Philosophy. Cornwall: MGP Books. Goldsmith, M. (1966). Hobbes’s Science of Politics. London: Columbia University Press. Hampton, J. (1986) Hobbes and the Social Contract Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hobbes, T. Leviathan. (1994). Retrieved on 02 April 2009, from The University of Adelaide Library Database http://ebooks. adelaide. edu. au Hopkins, S. (2009). Hobbes and Absolute Sovereignty. Retrieved on 01 April 2009, from Pathways to Philosophy website http://www. philosophypathways. com Kafka, G. (1983). Hobbes’s War of All Against All. Ethics (93)2, 291-310. Pigden, C. (18/03/2009). Personal Communication. Lecture: Philosophy 227/327. Rogow, A. , & Lasswell, H. (1963). Power Corruption and Rectitude. Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. Shelton, G. (1992). Morality and Sovereignty in the Philosophy of Hobbes. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Sorrell, T. (1986). Hobbes. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Sorrell, T. (Ed. ). (1996). The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Springborg, P (Ed. ). (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes’s Leviathan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Watkins, J. (1989). Hobbes System of Ideas (2nd ed. ). England: Gower Publishing.